ch. 55-56

HW: 55A 2,3,5,8 56A 1,2,4,7

CAUSAL CLAUSES, Ch. 55

This is mostly review with some new material.

PARTICIPLE NOTES

Participles can show causal relationships. This is more common in Latin than in English.

Examples:
The man left because the town was destroyed.
Rephrased: The man left, the town having been destroyed.
Vir discessit, oppido deleto.

Because the ship was approaching, I walked towards the sea.
The ship approaching, I walked towards the sea.
Nave appropinquante, ad mare ambulabam.

MOOD OF VERBS IN CAUSAL CLAUSES

The quod, quia, and quoniam clauses typically have an indicative mood verb in classical Latin, while cum clauses will always have a subjunctive verb.

This rule applies unless, as section 552 indicates, the causal clause is sub-oblique. Sub-oblique is a fancy term for clauses that are included in some kind of indirect (reported) discourse, that is, any subordinate clause in an indirect statement, question, or command.

They give you a good example in 552 of a causal clause stated as ACTUAL FACT (i) and a causal clause stated as IMPLIED THOUGHT/SPEECH (ii). Here are some other examples:

He wanted you to leave because you were ready.
Ille te discedere voluit quod eras(indic.) paratus.
*Causal clause here is meant to show simple fact.

He wanted you to leave because you are awful. ...on the grounds that...
*Causal clause here represents the thought of the subject.
Ille te discedere voluit quod esses(subj.) dirus.

Sometimes the causal clause may be understood either way and you can choose indicative (simple factual cause) or subjunctive (implied thought about cause) for the quod/quia/quoniam clause.

NEGATIVE AND ALTERNATIVE REASONS, ...not because X...but because Y

From section 553.

Use non quod/quo...sed quia:

I left not because you were coming but because I had to go home.
Discessi non quod veniebas sed quia necesse mihi erat domum ire.

RELATIVE Causal Clauses

Section 554

Relative Clauses can depict a causal relationship. In Latin these will often have the adverb quippe in front of the relative pronoun, and the verb of the relative clause is typically subjunctive (you should always use subjunctive).

Examples:
Those men received money because they had built the house.
Those who had built the house received money.
Ei (quippe) qui domum aedificavissent pecuniam acceperunt.

The women, since they were wise, knew there was trouble.
Rephrased: The women, who were wise, knew there was trouble.
Feminae (quippe) quae sapientes essent noverant periculum adesse.

QUOD and THAT

Section 556

The causal conjunctions quod, quia, cum (quom), and quoniam (quom iam) are all constructed from Latin pronouns (compare qui,quae,quod) just like our conjunction "that" which is made from the demonstrative pronoun "that". Note the following examples to illustrate similarity:

I am upset that he has left.
Rephrased: I am upset because he has left. {Means the same as above.
Latin: Me piget quod discessit.

He is happy that we are sailing.
Rephrased: He is happy because we are sailing.
Latin: Gaudet quod navigamus.

It turns out well that you are going.
It turns out well because you are going.
Bene accidit quod is. {The quod clause is actually acting as the subject of accidit.

Note that quod in some such instances and elsewhere in Latin is often translated "the fact that."

EMPHASIZING THE REASON

Section 555

You may emphasize the reason in English by putting "because" early in the sentence. Usually this position is also emphatic in Latin with quod and quia clauses, but early position is normal for cum and quoniam clauses as it is with "since" in English.

Because you are so nice, I will help you.
Quod tam mitis es, te adiuvabo.
It was because you left, that he hated you.
Quia discesseras, te oderat.

English and Latin may both use words or phrases of various kinds to emphasize the reason.

In English we may say things like "exactly because" or "especially since", and we may even emphasize the reason so much that the main clause is tiny in comparison.

It is for precisely this reason that the war has gone on for too many years.

In Latin, common words or phrases added to the main clause to signpost or emphasize the reason include: ideo, idcirco, propterea, ea causa (abl. of cause).

Examples:
He left for this reason because he hates you with all his heart.
Ideo discessit quod te toto pectore odit.

For this very reason he is coming because he wants to.
Ipsa causa venit quod vult.



CONCESSIONS, Ch. 56

Concession clauses in English typically start with although, even though, even if, or however. The main clause is occasionally marked by a word like still or nevertheless.

You might remind yourself of the subjunctive cum clauses of concession (sect. 461) even though they are not really covered here. In Latin the main clause in a sentence with a concession clause might have tamen or nihilominus.

As with causal clauses, participles may be used to represent a concessive clause.

Example:
Having defeated the enemy, he still could not forget that his friends had been killed.
Hostibus victis, tamen non potuit oblivisci amicos interfectos esse.

Summary

As your book rightly emphasizes you may concede a fact or an imagined possibility.

1. Fact
In Latin use quamquam, etsi, tametsi + indicative verb (or cum + subjunctive, see s. 461) for the concessive clause.

Examples:
Although you are king (a fact), you must obey the laws.
Quamquam rex es, legibus a te parendum est.
Etsi rex es,...
Though he is here (a fact), I do not see him.
Tametsi adest, eum non video.

2. Possibility
In Latin use etsi, etiam si, quamvis (usually with following adj. or adv.), or licet + subjunctive verb for the concessive clause.

Examples:
Even if you had not won (an imagined, unreal situation), I would still love you.
Etsi non vicisses, tamen te amarem.
Licet non vicisses, ...
However strong you are (accounting for any possibility), you will not break the chains.
Quamvis validus sis, catenas non franges.

RELATIVE

A relative clause may have a concessive meaning if the verb is subjunctive, as always the main clause may be marked in Latin by tamen/nihilominus.

He sent the soldiers who were not ready.
Rephrased: He sent the soldiers although they were not ready.
Milites qui parati non essent (nihilominus) misit.